Civilization manualBook 1: From Bare Hands to Steam and Electricity765 entries · 23 phases · 100 years
The Island

The Making thread

Tools, materials, power and machines. 482 entries, in the order they are reached.

Phase 01 — First days: water, fire, shelter Year 1 (days 1–7)

01.02Hammerstonethe first tool; a fist-sized cobble for strikingyear 1
01.03Sharp stone flakethe first cutting edgeyear 1
01.04Digging stickdigs roots, clay, pits and post holesyear 1
01.05Twisted plant-fibre cordtwo-ply string for tying everythingyear 1
01.06Tinder and kindling storekept dry for fire startingyear 1
01.07Bow-drill fire setspindle, hearth board, bow and socketyear 1
01.08First fire and stone hearthwarmth, cooking, light, safetyyear 1
01.09Ember carrierkeeps and moves fire so it is never lostyear 1
01.12Bamboo cups and water tubesfirst containersyear 1
01.13Split-stick tongsmove hot stones and coalsyear 1
01.15Fire-hardened spear ⚠first weapon and fishing poleyear 1
01.20Resin torchlight to move at nightyear 1

Phase 02 — Stone, bone, wood and fibre toolkit Year 1 (weeks 2–6)

02.01Knapping kithard and soft hammers and a pressure flaker for controlled stone workyear 1
02.02Hand axeheavy two-faced chopperyear 1
02.03Stone knives, scrapers and engraving pointsretouched blades for fine workyear 1
02.04Sandstone grinding slabgrinds and sharpens stone, bone and woodyear 1
02.05Pitch gluehot-melt glue for haftingyear 1
02.06Sinew thread and rawhide lashingshrinks tight as it driesyear 1
02.07Ground stone axe headtough polished edge that does not shatteryear 1
02.08Hafted stone axe ⚠fells trees and cuts polesyear 1
02.09Stone adzehollows and flattens woodyear 1
02.10Wooden wedges and maulsplit logs into rough planksyear 1
02.11Three-strand ropefor hauling and liftingyear 1
02.12Lever, log rollers and sledgethe first machines for moving heavy loadsyear 1
02.17Basketscoiled and woven, for carrying and storingyear 1
02.18Wattle hurdles and woven matswalls, fences, drying traysyear 1
02.22Pump drill with stone bitdrills wood, bone, shell and soft stoneyear 1
02.24Carved wooden bowls and troughsburned and scraped hollowyear 1
02.25Antler pick, bone shovel and stone hoedigging toolsyear 1
02.26Dugout canoe and paddles ⚠explores the 100-mile coastyear 1
02.27Bitumen from the oil seepwaterproofs baskets and seams; first use of petroleumyear 1
02.29Carrying gearpack frame, carrying pole and head strapyear 1

Phase 03 — Food security and the first camp Year 1

03.04Outrigger and hide sail for the dugout ⚠steady under sail; the far end of the island in days, not weeksyear 1
03.10Rendered tallow and lardfuel, grease, waterproofing, later soapyear 1
03.11Tallow lampsteady light indoorsyear 1
03.20Tamed riding and pack horsesrope halter, hide pad and pack baskets; a rider carries news across the island in daysyear 1
03.25Managed coppice wood lotpoles and fuel that regrow every few yearsyear 1

Phase 04 — Clay, kilns, charcoal and lime Years 1–2

04.02Clay pit and prepared claydug, soaked, cleaned, tempered and kneadedyear 1
04.03Hand-built potspinched and coiledyear 1
04.04Pit-fired potteryfirst cooking pots and water jars; boiling becomes easyyear 1
04.07Charcoal clampwood baked under earth into clean, hot-burning fuelyear 1
04.08Sun-dried mud bricksmade in a wooden mouldyear 1
04.09Updraft kilnfirebox below, pierced floor, domed chamberyear 1
04.10Kiln-fired potterystrong jars, lidded pots, bowls, lampsyear 1
04.11Fired bricks and roof tilesyear 1
04.12Potter's turntablefaster, rounder, thinner potsyear 1
04.14Lime kiln and quicklime ⚠burns limestone or shellsyear 1
04.15Slaked lime, mortar, plaster and whitewash ⚠year 1
04.17Wood-ash lye ⚠the first chemical; water run through hardwood ashyear 2
04.18Potashlye boiled dry; needed for soap, glass and saltpetreyear 2
04.20Wood tar and pitchbaked out of pine in a sealed potyear 2
04.22Refractory clay mixclay that survives white heatyear 2
04.23Heat cones and the colour of heatsmall clay cones that slump at known heats, and a chart of fire coloursyear 2
04.24Cruciblessmall cups to melt metal inyear 2
04.25Clay air nozzles (tuyeres)carry the air blast into a fireyear 2
04.26Bag bellowsa pair of hide bags pumped by hand or footyear 2
04.27Forced-air charcoal furnacereaches 1100–1200 °C, hot enough to smelt copperyear 2

Phase 05 — Copper and bronze Years 2–3

05.01Ore sample collection and simple testscolour, weight, streak, what a hot fire doesyear 2
05.02Cold-hammered native copperbeads, awls, small blades; softened again by heatingyear 2
05.03Fire-set open-cut mine ⚠rock heated by fire, cracked with water, prised outyear 2
05.04Ore dressing floorcrush, hand-sort and wash the oreyear 2
05.05Smelted copperthe first metal won from rockyear 2
05.06Open moulds and cast copper ingotsyear 2
05.07Beam balance and weightsrecipes need measured partsyear 2
05.08Smelted tinyear 2
05.09Bronzenine parts copper, one part tin; harder and easier to castyear 2
05.10Two-piece moulds with clay corescast hollow socketsyear 2
05.11Bronze axe and adzeyear 2
05.12Bronze hammers and anvil blockyear 2
05.13Bronze tongs and crucible liftersyear 2
05.14Bronze chisels, gouges, punches and drill bitsyear 2
05.15Bronze sawfirst true saw, teeth cut with a chiselyear 3
05.16Bronze knives, sickles and razorsyear 3
05.17Bronze spear and arrow headsyear 3
05.18Bronze pick, wedges and crowbarmining and quarryingyear 3
05.19Lost-wax castingany shape, fine detailyear 3
05.21Bronze needles, pins, hooks, nails and rivetsyear 3
05.22Hammered copper sheet and riveted cauldronlarge metal vesselsyear 3
05.23Hammered copper rod and thick wireyear 3
05.25Smelted lead ⚠soft, heavy, resists acid; vital later for chemistry and batteriesyear 3
05.26Silver ⚠parted from lead by burning the lead away on a bed of bone ashyear 3
05.27Lead sheet, weights and pipe ⚠year 3
05.28Soft solder and solderingjoins metal without melting ityear 3

Phase 06 — Iron and steel Years 3–5

06.01Double board bellows with flap valvesa steady, strong air blastyear 3
06.02Mined and roasted iron oreroasting drives off water and makes it porousyear 3
06.03Bloomery furnacea clay shaft about chest highyear 3
06.04Iron blooma spongy lump of iron and slag, never fully meltedyear 3
06.05Wrought iron barthe bloom hammered hot until the slag is squeezed outyear 3
06.06Smith's forgeraised hearth, side blast, quenching troughyear 3
06.07Iron hammers, tongs and anvilyear 3
06.08Forge weldingiron joined to iron at white heatyear 3
06.09Smith's tool sethot chisels, punches, drifts, fullers and swagesyear 4
06.10Blister steeliron bars baked for days packed in charcoalyear 4
06.11Shear steelblister steel folded and welded until evenyear 4
06.12Hardening and temperingquench hard, then reheat to the right colouryear 4
06.13Steel-edged axes, adzes and chiselsyear 4
06.14Files and raspsthe tool that shapes all other metal toolsyear 4
06.15Sawshand saw, frame saw and two-man pit sawyear 4
06.16Augers, drill bits and braceyear 4
06.17Crank grindstonea turning sandstone wheel in a water troughyear 4
06.18Nails, spikes and rivetsyear 4
06.19Chain and hooksyear 4
06.20Draw plate and drawn wireiron and copper wire of even thicknessyear 4
06.21Knives, shears, sickles and scythesyear 4
06.22Picks, shovels, hoes, crowbars and sledgehammersyear 4
06.23Iron hardwarehinges, latches, bands and hoopsyear 4
06.24Lock and keya warded iron lock for the store, the powder and the medicinesyear 5
06.25Hammered iron sheet, pans and griddlesyear 5
06.26Steel needles, awls and fish hooksyear 5
06.27Flint and steel strikerfire in secondsyear 5
06.28Wedge-clamp bench viseholds work for filingyear 5
06.29Brazingstrong joints made with melted copperyear 5
06.30Timbered underground mine ⚠follows ore and coal into the hillyear 5

Phase 07 — Carpentry, the village, measures and writing Years 4–9

07.13Saw pit and sawn plankssquare timber in quantityyear 5
07.14Timber seasoning stackswood dried so it does not warpyear 5
07.15Carpenter's bench, planes, drawknife, spokeshave and malletsyear 5
07.16Hide glueyear 5
07.17Framed joinerymortise and tenon, dovetail, pegged jointsyear 6
07.18Pole latheturns round parts: handles, spindles, pulleys, bowlsyear 6
07.19Wooden screw and nutthe first screw thread, cut by handyear 6
07.20Screw press and screw clampsyear 6
07.21Barrels, buckets and tubswatertight wooden vesselsyear 6
07.25Spoked wheel with iron tyreyear 6
07.26Wheelbarrow and hand cartyear 6
07.27Two-wheel cart and four-wheel wagondrawn by oxen and horsesyear 7
07.28Pulley blocks, windlass and capstana few people lift tonsyear 7
07.29Lifting craneyear 7
07.30Rope walklong heavy ropes and cablesyear 7
07.31Stone quarry and dressed blocksyear 7
07.32Refined sulphur ⚠melted clean and cast in sticksyear 7
07.33Saltpetrepurified by dissolving and crystallisingyear 7
07.34Black powder ⚠ground wet by hand at first, later in the stamp mill; kept under lock, and used only for blastingyear 7
07.35Rock blasting ⚠drilled holes, powder and slow match; opens every mine, quarry and cutting from here onyear 7
07.36Graded roadvillage to mines, quarry and shoreyear 7
07.39Workshop rowsmithy, wood shop, pottery, storesyear 8
07.44Timber bridge over the riveryear 8
07.45Wooden wagonwayhorse-drawn carts on wooden rails from mine to works; the seed of the railwayyear 8
07.46Plank-built boat with oars ⚠sealed with tar and fibreyear 8
07.47Timber jettyyear 8

Phase 08 — Farming, cloth, leather and household industry Years 6–18

08.04Saddle, bridle and stirrupsa rider crosses the island in two or three daysyear 7
08.31Sailcloth and rigged sailing boat ⚠the whole coast within reachyear 14
08.37Linseed oil paint and varnishprotects wood and iron from weatheryear 15
08.38Raw rubber sheettapped, set and smokedyear 15

Phase 09 — Water, wind and mechanical power Years 14–22

09.01Weir, mill pond and millrace with sluice gatestored, controlled wateryear 14
09.02Greased plain bearingsan iron shaft turning in a bronze or hardwood blockyear 14
09.03Undershot water wheelpaddles pushed by the streamyear 15
09.04Wooden gearstoothed wheel and cage pinion; turn power through a corner and change speedyear 15
09.06Overshot water wheelwater falls into buckets; far more power from the same streamyear 15
09.07Cam shaft and trip hammer ⚠a heavy hammer lifted and dropped by the wheelyear 16
09.08Water-blown bellowsan endless strong blast for furnacesyear 16
09.09Crank and connecting rodturns round-and-round into back-and-forthyear 16
09.10Water-powered sawmill ⚠year 17
09.11Flywheela heavy wheel that keeps a machine turning evenlyyear 17
09.12Leather belt drive and line shaftone wheel drives many machinesyear 17
09.13Machine guards and work protectionfenced gears and belts, a stop cord, leather apronsyear 17
09.14Stamp millcrushes ore with falling iron-shod postsyear 18
09.15Powered grinding and polishing wheelsyear 18
09.16Powered lathesteady rotation for wood and soft metalyear 18
09.17Powered wire-drawing benchlong lengths of even wireyear 19
09.18Suction pump and bored-log pipesyear 19
09.19Bronze force pumppushes water uphill and under pressureyear 19
09.20Bucket-chain water liftdrains pits and waters fieldsyear 19
09.21Horse whimhorses turn a drum to hoist ore and water from the mineyear 20
09.22Horse milla horse walking in a circle drives a machine where there is no streamyear 20
09.23Windmillpower away from the riveryear 20

Phase 10 — Blast furnace, coal, cast iron and rolling Years 20–26

10.01Coal mine ⚠fuel that does not depend on the forestyear 20
10.02Firebrickbricks that stand furnace heat for monthsyear 20
10.03Coke ⚠coal baked free of smoke and sulphur; strong enough to carry a tall furnace chargeyear 20
10.04Mine safety lampa flame behind fine wire gauze that cannot fire mine gasyear 21
10.05Mine ventilationa second shaft and air doors draw fresh air through the workingsyear 21
10.06Pit poniessmall horses haul the tubs underground and along the wagonwayyear 21
10.07Water-powered piston blowerfar more air than any bellowsyear 21
10.08Blast furnace ⚠a tall stone stack lined with firebrick, run for months without stoppingyear 21
10.09Pig iron ⚠iron tapped as a liquid and run into sand channelsyear 22
10.10Sand moulding with wooden patternsthe foundry methodyear 22
10.11Cupola remelting furnaceyear 22
10.12Iron castingspots, stoves, pipes, anvils, weightsyear 22
10.13Cast iron gears, shafts and machine framesmills rebuilt in ironyear 22
10.14Hot blast stoveheats the furnace air and saves a third of the fuelyear 23
10.15Puddling furnace ⚠turns brittle pig iron into tough wrought iron in bulkyear 23
10.16Water-driven shingling hammersqueezes the slag from puddled ironyear 23
10.17Rolling mill ⚠iron squeezed between turning rollsyear 23
10.18Rolled bar, rod and railyear 24
10.19Iron plate and sheetthe material of boilersyear 24
10.20Iron railway track and flanged wheelshorse-drawn at firstyear 24
10.21Tinplaterust-proof sheet for cans, lamps and vesselsyear 24
10.22Welded iron pipeyear 24
10.23Wire ropefor mine hoists and cranesyear 25
10.24Rolled copper sheet, rod and long drawn wireyear 25
10.25Brasscopper melted with zinc oreyear 25
10.26Crucible cast steelsteel fully melted, so it is the same all the way throughyear 25
10.27Cast-steel cutting tools and springsyear 25
10.28Tungsten tool steelcutting tools that keep their edge when they run hotyear 26

Phase 11 — Glass, chemistry, petroleum, rubber and cement Years 24–32

11.01Glass furnace and melted glassyear 24
11.02Blown glassbottles, jars and flasksyear 24
11.04Laboratory glasswareretorts, tubes, funnels, condensersyear 24
11.05Ground lensesmagnifier, spectacles, telescope for surveyingyear 24
11.06Goggles and dust maskseyes and lungs protected at the grinder, the furnace and the acid benchyear 25
11.07Salt-glazed stonewareacid-proof jars and pipesyear 25
11.08Porcelainwhite clay fired very hot; the best insulator and the best laboratory wareyear 25
11.09Copper still with coiled condenseryear 25
11.10Distilled alcohol ⚠solvent, antiseptic, clean-burning fuelyear 25
11.11Turpentine and rosinthinner, solvent and soldering fluxyear 25
11.12Wood-distilling retort ⚠wood heated in a closed iron vessel gives wood spirit, strong vinegar acid, acetone and better charcoalyear 25
11.13Shellac varnishthe first good electrical insulationyear 25
11.14Mercury ⚠roasted from red cinnabar and condensedyear 25
11.15Thermometer, barometer and hydrometerheat, pressure and strength of liquids become numbersyear 26
11.16Still house and laboratorybenches, water, a hood that draws fumes away, and safe storesyear 26
11.18Sulphuric acid ⚠made in lead-lined chambers; the most important chemical of allyear 26
11.19Nitric acid ⚠year 26
11.20Hydrochloric acid ⚠year 26
11.21Soda ashbetter glass and soapyear 26
11.22Caustic soda ⚠year 26
11.23Wood pulpwood cooked in caustic soda into clean fibre; cheap paperyear 26
11.24Carbon disulphide ⚠sulphur vapour passed over red-hot charcoal; a poisonous liquid that catches fire very easilyyear 27
11.25Blue and green vitriolcopper and iron sulphate, for batteries, plating and inkyear 27
11.26Zinc metal ⚠distilled from its ore as a vapour and condensedyear 27
11.27Lead oxides ⚠litharge and red lead, for paint, pipe joints and battery platesyear 27
11.28Coal gas works and gas light ⚠year 27
11.29Coal tar, pitch and creosotepreserves railway sleepers and timberyear 27
11.30Ammonia and sal ammoniacbattery salt and soldering fluxyear 27
11.31Mirrorspolished white bronze first, silvered glass lateryear 27
11.34Drilled oil well ⚠a steel bit dropped on a rope from a spring poleyear 28
11.35Oil still ⚠splits crude oil into gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, wax and taryear 28
11.36Gasoline store ⚠the lightest cut of the oil kept cool in sealed iron drums, away from every flame; solvent and blowlamp fuel now, engine fuel lateryear 28
11.38Mineral lubricating oil and greaselets machines run fast and hotyear 28
11.39Vulcanised rubber ⚠rubber kneaded with sulphur and cured by heat; stays springy hot or coldyear 28
11.40Rubber goodshoses, gaskets, belts, seals, waterproof cloth, bootsyear 28
11.41Hard rubbera tough insulator for battery cases and electrical partsyear 28
11.42Graded abrasive powderssorted by settling in wateryear 29
11.43Asbestos and mica insulation ⚠heat-proof packing and sheetyear 29
11.44Portland cementyear 29
11.45Concrete and iron-reinforced concreteengine beds, dams, harbour wallsyear 29
11.47Antimony ⚠smelted from its grey ore; hardens lead and tin for bearings and printing typeyear 29
11.48Nickel and resistance alloynickel smelted from its ore; an alloy with copper for resistance wire and hard-wearing platingyear 29
11.49Zinc-coated iron wire and sheetiron dipped in molten zinc so it cannot rustyear 29
11.57Litmus papershows at once whether a liquid is acid or alkaliyear 30
11.71Benzene and aniline from coal tar ⚠the start of dyes, stains and made medicinesyear 32

Phase 12 — Precision and machine tools Years 30–36

12.01Flat surface platesthree iron plates scraped against each other until all are truly flatyear 30
12.02Straightedges and squarestrue references taken from the platesyear 30
12.03Iron-bed lathe with slide restthe tool is held by the machine, not the handyear 30
12.04Master lead screwone accurate screw, made slowly and corrected, from which all others are copiedyear 30
12.05Screw-cutting lathe with change gearscuts any threadyear 31
12.06Taps, dies and standard threadsyear 31
12.07Bolts, nuts and machine screwsthings can be taken apart and put backyear 31
12.08Iron screw vise and clampsyear 31
12.09Measuring toolscalipers, screw micrometer, sliding gauge, plug and ring gaugesyear 31
12.10Drill press and twist drillsyear 31
12.11Cylinder boring milla rigid bar bores a true round cylinder; the key to steamyear 31
12.12Planing machinetrue flat surfaces on ironyear 32
12.13Shapersmall flats, slots and keywaysyear 32
12.14Milling machineturning cutters shape metalyear 32
12.15Dividing head and cut gearsaccurate, quiet gear teethyear 32
12.17Bonded grinding wheels and tool grinderyear 32
12.18Precision grinding machinefinishes hardened steel to exact sizeyear 32
12.19White-metal bearings with oil cupssoft lining that runs cool at speedyear 32
12.20The machine shoplathes, drills and planers driven from one line shaftyear 33
12.24Plate punch, shears and hot rivetingyear 33
12.25Plate-bending rollscurve flat plate into boiler shellsyear 33
12.26Valves, cocks and threaded pipe fittingsyear 33
12.27Hydraulic presshuge force from a small pumpyear 34
12.28Pressure gaugea curved brass tube that straightens under pressure and moves a pointeryear 34
12.30Circular saw and wood-planing machine ⚠year 34
12.33Fine balanceweighs a single grain; doses and chemical tests become exactyear 34
12.34Colour-corrected lensestwo kinds of glass cemented together give a sharp image with no coloured fringesyear 35
12.43Hand-cranked centrifugespins a liquid so that its parts separateyear 36

Phase 13 — Steam power Years 34–40

13.01Test boiler with weighted safety valve ⚠learning what steam pressure and vacuum can doyear 34
13.02Riveted iron boiler ⚠year 34
13.03Boiler fittingssafety valve, water-level glass, pressure gauge, lead fusible plugyear 34
13.04Water pressure test of every boiler ⚠pumped full of cold water to well above working pressureyear 35
13.05Boiler house and brick chimneytall stack pulls air through the fireyear 35
13.06Atmospheric beam engine ⚠steam condensed under a piston; pumps the mine dryyear 35
13.07Steam-tight piston, rings and stuffing boxyear 35
13.08Separate condenser and air pumpthe cylinder stays hot; fuel use falls by two thirdsyear 35
13.09Double-acting cylinder with slide valve and eccentricsteam pushes both waysyear 36
13.10Rotative beam engine ⚠crank and flywheel turn a shaftyear 36
13.11Flyball governor and throttle valvethe engine holds its own speedyear 36
13.12Boiler feed pump and steam injectoryear 36
13.13Steam-driven workshopsforge, mill and machine shop free of the riveryear 36
13.14High-pressure boiler with internal flue ⚠year 37
13.15Pipe and boiler laggingkeeps the heat inyear 37
13.16High-pressure horizontal engine ⚠small, strong, no condenser neededyear 37
13.17Fire-tube boiler ⚠many small tubes; raises steam fastyear 37
13.18Steam hammer ⚠forges large shafts and axlesyear 37
13.19Steam blowing engine for the blast furnace ⚠year 37
13.20Direct-acting steam pump ⚠water supply, mine drainage, fire fightingyear 38
13.21Steam winding engine at the mine ⚠year 38
13.22Steam crane ⚠lifts tons at the works, the harbour and the railway cuttingsyear 38
13.23Gas compressor ⚠air and other gases squeezed by a steam-driven piston: air brakes, a rock drill, ice-makingyear 38
13.24Engine indicatordraws the pressure inside the cylinder on paper; measures poweryear 38
13.25Compound engine ⚠steam used twice, in a small then a large cylinderyear 39
13.26High-speed enclosed engine ⚠steady enough to drive a generator directlyyear 39

Phase 14 — Electricity, generators, motors and batteries Years 38–45

14.01Voltaic pilethe first steady electric currentyear 38
14.02Daniell cella reliable battery for hours of workyear 38
14.03Insulated copper wirewrapped in cotton thread and varnishedyear 38
14.04Electromagneta magnet that switches on and offyear 38
14.05Galvanometershows and measures currentyear 39
14.06Permanent steel magnetshardened bars and horseshoes magnetised in a coilyear 39
14.07Circuit hardwareswitches, terminals and fusesyear 39
14.08Electroplatinga thin coat of copper, tin or zinc laid on by currentyear 39
14.09Induction coil ⚠a few volts turned into a spark of many thousandsyear 39
14.13Hand-cranked magnetoa magnet moving past a coil makes currentyear 40
14.14Commutator and brushescollect current from a turning coil in one directionyear 40
14.15Laminated iron corethin varnished sheets stacked, so the core does not heatyear 40
14.16Self-exciting dynamo ⚠its own current feeds its field magnets; real power at lastyear 40
14.17Steam-driven generating set ⚠the first power stationyear 40
14.18Electrical measuring instrumentsvoltmeter, ammeter, standard resistance coilsyear 41
14.19Switchboardknife switches, fuses and field regulator on a slate panelyear 41
14.20Rubber-insulated cableyear 41
14.21Carbon rodspressed and bakedyear 41
14.22Arc lampa blinding light for yards and workshopsyear 41
14.23Mercury vacuum pump ⚠falling mercury drags the air out of a bulbyear 41
14.24Incandescent lampa glowing carbon thread in an airless glass bulbyear 42
14.26Electric motora dynamo run backwardsyear 42
14.27Motor starter and speed controlyear 42
14.28Motor-driven machineseach lathe, pump, fan and hoist with its own motoryear 42
14.29Lead-acid cell ⚠two lead plates in acid; can be charged again and againyear 42
14.30Pasted-plate storage battery ⚠lead grids packed with lead oxide; many times the capacityyear 43
14.31Battery room and charging board ⚠stores the day's surplus and lights the nightyear 43
14.32Dry cellsealed, portable battery for bells and telephonesyear 43
14.34Electrically refined copperpurer copper carries more currentyear 43
14.36Alternator ⚠current that reverses many times a secondyear 43
14.37Transformer ⚠steps voltage up for long wires and down again for useyear 44
14.38Induction motorno brushes, almost nothing to wear outyear 44
14.42Baked-enamel winding wirecopper wire coated in oil varnish and baked hard; thinner than cotton covering, so more turns fit in a motoryear 44
14.43Varnished cloth and pressed mica sheetinsulation between layers that stands the heat inside a motoryear 45
14.44Hydrogen and oxygen from water by electric current ⚠gases for a very hot flame and for later chemistryyear 45
14.45Tungsten metal ⚠the ore roasted with soda, the oxide turned to metal powder in hydrogen, then pressed and sinteredyear 45
14.46Tungsten-filament lampthree times the light of the carbon lamp for the same current, and far longer lifeyear 45

Phase 15 — Railways, steam and electric cars, the power grid Years 43–50

15.01Bulk steel converter ⚠air blown through liquid iron turns tons of it to steel in minutesyear 43
15.02Rolled steel rails, plate, axles and tyresyear 43
15.03Steam locomotive ⚠year 43
15.04Railway wagons, carriages and brakesyear 43
15.05Steam shovel ⚠digs the cuttings and banks of the railway; one machine does the work of fifty diggersyear 44
15.06The island railwaythe first thirty miles of a line that will one day run the length of the island, signalled by telegraphyear 44
15.07Steam traction enginehauls, ploughs and threshesyear 44
15.08Steamboat with screw propelleryear 44
15.09Drawn steel tubelight, strong frames and boiler coilsyear 44
15.10Ball bearingshardened steel balls ground roundyear 44
15.11Roller chain and sprocketsyear 45
15.12Air-filled rubber tyre with valveyear 45
15.13Tar-bound road surfacecrushed stone bound with tar; a smooth, dustless road for wheelsyear 45
15.14Bicyclethe test bed for every light vehicle partyear 45
15.15Road vehicle chassissteering, leaf springs, differential gear and brakesyear 45
15.16Kerosene-fired flash boiler ⚠steam in minutes from a coil of tubeyear 45
15.17Steam caryear 46
15.18Light traction battery ⚠year 46
15.19Electric carmotor, controller and battery; silent, clean, charged overnightyear 46
15.20Charging stationyear 46
15.22Water turbinean enclosed wheel driven by water under pressureyear 46
15.23Hydro-electric station at the fallsyear 47
15.24High-voltage power line ⚠current sent from the falls to the settlements, the mine and the worksyear 47
15.25Island power gridsteam and water stations working together, batteries holding the surplusyear 47
15.26Electric mine and works tramwayyear 47
15.27Steam turbine generatorsteam spins a bladed wheel directly; far more power from the same coalyear 47
15.28Vacuum tubea hot filament, a grid and a plate in an airless glass bulb control a current; the bulb is emptied by a hand pump, then by the mercury pumpyear 47
15.35Acetic anhydride ⚠the strong reagent that turns salicylic acid into aspirinyear 48
15.43Moulded phenol resin ⚠the first man-made plastic, pressed hot into hard insulating partsyear 50
15.44Casein plasticmilk curd hardened into buttons, combs and handlesyear 50
15.46Aluminium by electric current ⚠the first ingot: the light metal that flight will needyear 50

Phase 16 — The builder's tools: spanners, pneumatic hammer and construction crane Years 51–58

16.01Rolled steel girders and anglesthe long beams and corner bars that every frame, crane and bridge is built fromyear 51
16.02Spanners and wrenchesa forged steel key for every standard nut, and one that adjustsyear 51
16.03Pliers, screwdrivers and wire cuttersthe hand tools of the fitter and the electrician, with handles that do not carry currentyear 51
16.04Screw jack and hydraulic jackone person lifts a wagon, a girder or the corner of a buildingyear 52
16.05Chain hoista geared chain block: one hand on the chain lifts a ton and holds ityear 52
16.06Scaffolding and ladderssafe footing up the side of anything being builtyear 52
16.07Safety helmet and harnessa hard hat against what falls, a belt and line against fallingyear 52
16.08Portable electric drilla motor held in the hand: the hole is drilled where the work standsyear 53
16.09Electric arc welding ⚠steel melted to steel in an electric arc; the weld begins to replace the rivetyear 53
16.10Calcium carbide and acetylene ⚠lime and coke melted together in an electric furnace; in water the grey lumps give off a gas that burns white-hotyear 54
16.11Gas welding and cutting torch ⚠acetylene burnt in pure oxygen: a flame that welds thin plate and cuts thick steelyear 55
16.12Pneumatic hammera piston driven by compressed air strikes thousands of blows a minute: rivets closed, castings chipped, concrete brokenyear 55
16.13Pneumatic rock drill ⚠the air hammer turning a long steel bit: shot holes in rock in minutes, for mines, cuttings and tunnelsyear 56
16.14Paint spray gunpaint blown on as a fine mist: a bridge painted in daysyear 56
16.15Construction crane ⚠a tall steel tower with a long jib and electric winches: lifts girders to the top of a rising frameyear 58

Phase 17 — The gasoline engine and the forklift Years 51–64

17.01Spark pluga spark jumps a small gap inside the cylinder at the right instantyear 51
17.02Carburettormixes a fine spray of gasoline into the air the engine draws inyear 51
17.03Gasoline engine ⚠the fuel burns inside the cylinder itself: far more power for its weight than steam, and it starts in a momentyear 52
17.04Two-stroke enginea small light engine without valves that fires at every turnyear 53
17.05Gasoline motor car and lorry ⚠the engine on a road chassis, with clutch, gearbox and driven axle: people and goods anywhere a road goesyear 54
17.06Electric starter and vehicle lightsa battery turns the engine over and lights the road at nightyear 55
17.07Fuel pump and filling stationgasoline kept underground and measured into each tankyear 55
17.08Motorcyclea small engine in a bicycle frameyear 55
17.09Motor busa long lorry chassis with seats: the first public transport by roadyear 56
17.12Diesel engine ⚠air squeezed until it is hot enough to fire the fuel by itself: no spark, heavy oil, great pulling poweryear 57
17.13Oil-hydraulic cylinder and pumpoil under pressure pushes a ram: the muscle of every later machineyear 57
17.15Tipper lorrythe load is tipped out by a hydraulic ramyear 58
17.16Palleta flat timber deck that lets a whole load be lifted at onceyear 58
17.17Forklifta small truck with two steel forks on a mast: one driver stacks what twenty people carriedyear 59
17.18Crawler tractor and bulldozer ⚠tracks in place of wheels and a steel blade in front: earth moved for roads, dams and airfieldsyear 60
17.19Portable air compressoran engine and a compressor on wheels: air tools at any building siteyear 60
17.20Chain saw ⚠a toothed chain driven round a bar by a small engine: a tree felled in minutesyear 62

Phase 18 — High-voltage lines, transmission towers and the multimeter Years 52–64

18.01Standard resistors and capacitorsthe made parts every later circuit uses: known values, marked and matchedyear 52
18.02Rectifierlets current pass one way only: alternating current charges batteries, and one meter reads both kindsyear 52
18.03Multimeterone instrument for volts, amperes and ohms, carried to the faultyear 53
18.04Suspension insulatora string of porcelain discs that holds a line at a far higher voltageyear 53
18.05Aluminium power cable with steel corea light, strong conductor for long spansyear 54
18.06Transmission towera lattice of steel angles that carries the lines high across countryyear 55
18.07Lightning arresterleads a lightning stroke on the line safely to earthyear 55
18.08Substation with oil circuit breaker ⚠high voltage stepped down for a district, and a fault cut off in an instant under oilyear 56
18.09Lead-sheathed underground cablepower and telephone lines buried under the streetyear 56
18.10Electric arc furnace ⚠scrap steel melted by an arc between great carbon rods: fine steels made to orderyear 57
18.13Thermostata strip of two metals bends with heat and switches the current on and offyear 58
18.15Electric soldering irona small heated copper tip for joining wiresyear 59

Phase 19 — Roads, bridges, flyovers and tall buildings Years 55–100

19.03Stone crusher and gravel plantrock broken and sorted by size for roads and concreteyear 56
19.04Rotary cement kilna long sloping tube that turns day and night: cement by the hundred tonsyear 56
19.05Concrete mixera turning drum mixes every batch alikeyear 56
19.06Road roller and graderthe road bed shaped and pressed hard before it is surfacedyear 57
19.07Piled foundations and pile driver ⚠long piles hammered down to firm ground, under a bridge pier or a tall buildingyear 57
19.08Cofferdam and caisson ⚠a dry place to work under water, for the piers of bridges and the walls of harboursyear 58
19.09Steel building framea skeleton of girders carries the floors, and the walls only keep the weather outyear 58
19.10Electric lift with safety brake ⚠a car hung on wire ropes in a shaft, with a catch that grips the rails if a rope breaksyear 59
19.14Roadsa net of many roads with junctions, wide and hard enough for lorries and busesyear 60
19.15Road signs, markings and traffic lightspainted lines, signs that need no words, and coloured lamps at the crossingsyear 62
19.17Bridgesof steel and of concrete, across the river and the gulfyear 62
19.18Prestressed concretesteel wires pulled tight inside the concrete, so that a slender beam carries a great loadyear 64
19.19Harbour with quay, breakwater and lighthouseships lie in still water beside a crane, and a light marks the entrance at nightyear 66
19.20Dual carriagewaytwo separate roadways, one for each direction, for fast traffic between the settlementsyear 68
19.21Tunnel ⚠a road or a railway driven through a hillyear 70
19.22Flyoversone road carried over another on concrete piers, so that neither stream of traffic stopsyear 72
19.23Concrete dam and reservoir ⚠a valley closed by a wall of concrete: water for the towns and power for the gridyear 75

Phase 20 — Epoxy and the materials for tape and screen Years 56–90

20.01Chlorine and caustic soda by electric current ⚠salt water split by current into the two chemicals that most of the new materials start fromyear 56
20.02Acetonethe clear solvent for lacquers, films and resinsyear 56
20.03Cellulose lacquer and enamel painta hard, glossy coat that dries in minutes and can be sprayedyear 58
20.04Plastic filma thin, clear, strong ribbon: the base of photographic film and of magnetic tapeyear 60
20.05Strong aluminium alloyaluminium with a little copper, hardened by heat and time: as strong as mild steel at a third of the weightyear 60
20.06Ammonia made from the air ⚠nitrogen and hydrogen joined under great pressure over hot iron: fertiliser and chemicals without limityear 61
20.07Chromium and stainless steelsteel with chromium and nickel does not rustyear 62
20.08PVCvinyl plastic: a tough covering for cable, pipe and flooring that does not rotyear 63
20.09Magnet and core alloyssteels and nickel-irons made for magnetism alone: stronger magnets, cores that waste lessyear 64
20.10Tungsten carbide tool tipsa cutting edge harder than any steel, pressed from powderyear 66
20.11Synthetic rubberrubber made in the works, so that tyres no longer wait on the treesyear 68
20.13Glass fibre and fibre-reinforced resinglass drawn into fine threads and set in resin: light panels and hulls as strong as metalyear 74
20.14Epoxytwo liquids that set, when mixed, into a glue and a casting resin stronger than any beforeyear 80
20.15Polarising filma plastic sheet that lets through only light that swings one way: half of what a liquid crystal screen needsyear 84
20.16Clear conducting coating on glassa film of tin oxide too thin to see, which carries current across a windowyear 85
20.17Liquid crystal compounda liquid whose molecules line up in an electric field and turn the light: the heart of a flat screenyear 88

Phase 21 — Microphone, speaker, magnetic tape and the telephone exchange Years 58–85

21.01Relaya small current closes a switch for a larger one: one circuit commands anotheryear 58
21.03Multi-pair telephone cablehundreds of paper-wrapped pairs of wire in one lead sheathyear 59
21.04Valve amplifiera weak signal made strong without changing its shapeyear 59
21.05Microphonesound turned into a true electric copy of itselfyear 60
21.06Speakera paper cone driven by a coil in a magnet fills a room with soundyear 60
21.17Photo-electric celllight falling on a coated plate lets a current flow: a machine can seeyear 66
21.19Magnetic tapea plastic ribbon coated with fine iron oxide holds sound as a pattern of magnetismyear 70

Phase 22 — The propeller airplane Years 62–80

22.01Plywoodthin sheets of wood glued with the grain crossed: light, strong, and it does not splityear 62
22.03Glider ⚠a wing that carries a person down a slope on moving air: steering is learned before any engine is trustedyear 63
22.04Doped fabric coveringcloth stretched over the frame and painted with a lacquer that shrinks it drum-tight and weatherproofyear 63
22.05Light aircraft enginea gasoline engine pared down until each horsepower weighs a kilogram or twoyear 64
22.06Propeller airplane ⚠a wing, a tail, an engine and a propeller: people flyyear 65
22.07Airfielda long, level, drained strip with a windsock, sheds and fuelyear 65
22.08Flight instrumentsairspeed indicator, altimeter and gyroscope horizon: the pilot knows speed, height and which way is up inside a cloudyear 66
22.09Parachutea canopy of fine cloth lets a person fall safely from a failing aircraftyear 66
22.11Seaplane and flying boatan aircraft that takes off from the water of the gulf and comes down on ityear 67
22.12High-octane aviation fuelgasoline that can be squeezed harder without knocking: more power from the same engineyear 68
22.14Radial aero engine ⚠cylinders set like the spokes of a wheel round one crank and cooled by the air: great power for little weightyear 69
22.15Safety glass and clear acrylic sheeta windscreen that cracks without flying apart, and a clear plastic that can be moulded into a canopyyear 70
22.18All-metal aircraft with stressed skinthe aluminium skin itself carries the load: faster, stronger, and it does not rotyear 72
22.19Airliner for passengers, cargo and maila large closed aircraft on a timetable: the far end of the island in an houryear 74
22.21Helicopter ⚠lifted by a turning wing, it rises straight up, hovers, and lands on a patch of groundyear 80

Phase 23 — Logic gates, ferrite core memory and the valve computer Years 72–100

23.07Crystal diodea tiny one-way gate for current: a metal point on a chip of crystal, with no filament to burn outyear 82
23.08Cathode-ray tube screena display before the flat screen: a beam of electrons writes figures and curves on glowing glassyear 83
23.09OR gateits output is on if either input is onyear 84
23.10AND gateits output is on only if both inputs are onyear 84
23.11NOT gateturns on into off and off into onyear 84
23.12NOR gateOR followed by NOT: from this one gate alone every circuit of logic can be builtyear 85
23.13NAND gateAND followed by NOT: it too can build everythingyear 85
23.14XOR gateon if the two inputs differ: the heart of the adderyear 85
23.15Flip-floptwo gates feeding each other hold one bit until they are told to changeyear 86
23.16Clock pulse generatora steady train of pulses makes every part of the machine step togetheryear 86
23.17Adderadds two binary digits and a carry; a row of them adds whole numbersyear 87
23.18Register and countera row of flip-flops holds a number, and counts pulsesyear 88
23.19Decoder and selector circuitspick one line out of many from a number: which store, which operationyear 88
23.20Printed circuit board and plug-in unitthe wiring etched in copper on a board, and each circuit a unit that can be pulled out and changedyear 88
23.21Stabilised power supply and cooling ⚠steady voltages for thousands of valves, and their heat carried awayyear 88
23.22Ferritea magnetic ceramic that does not conduct: pressed from metal oxides and firedyear 88
23.23Magnetic drum storea spinning drum coated like tape holds thousands of numbers under rows of headsyear 89
23.24Arithmetic unitregisters and adders that add, subtract, shift and compare on commandyear 89
23.25Ferrite core memorya tiny ring of ferrite on crossed wires holds one bit with no power: thousands woven into a mat make a fast storeyear 90
23.26Keyboardthe typewriter's keys send coded signals straight into the machineyear 91
23.27Control unit and the stored programthe orders are kept in the same store as the numbers, and the machine fetches and obeys them one by oneyear 92
23.30Display drive circuitswitches that put the right voltage on each dot of a screen, row by rowyear 97
23.31LCD monitora flat screen of liquid crystal between two sheets of coated glass: the picture formed dot by dot, with almost no poweryear 100