The Making thread
Tools, materials, power and machines. 482 entries, in the order they are reached.
Phase 01 — First days: water, fire, shelter Year 1 (days 1–7)
| 01.02 | Hammerstonethe first tool; a fist-sized cobble for striking | year 1 |
| 01.03 | Sharp stone flakethe first cutting edge | year 1 |
| 01.04 | Digging stickdigs roots, clay, pits and post holes | year 1 |
| 01.05 | Twisted plant-fibre cordtwo-ply string for tying everything | year 1 |
| 01.06 | Tinder and kindling storekept dry for fire starting | year 1 |
| 01.07 | Bow-drill fire setspindle, hearth board, bow and socket | year 1 |
| 01.08 | First fire and stone hearthwarmth, cooking, light, safety | year 1 |
| 01.09 | Ember carrierkeeps and moves fire so it is never lost | year 1 |
| 01.12 | Bamboo cups and water tubesfirst containers | year 1 |
| 01.13 | Split-stick tongsmove hot stones and coals | year 1 |
| 01.15 | Fire-hardened spear ⚠first weapon and fishing pole | year 1 |
| 01.20 | Resin torchlight to move at night | year 1 |
Phase 02 — Stone, bone, wood and fibre toolkit Year 1 (weeks 2–6)
| 02.01 | Knapping kithard and soft hammers and a pressure flaker for controlled stone work | year 1 |
| 02.02 | Hand axeheavy two-faced chopper | year 1 |
| 02.03 | Stone knives, scrapers and engraving pointsretouched blades for fine work | year 1 |
| 02.04 | Sandstone grinding slabgrinds and sharpens stone, bone and wood | year 1 |
| 02.05 | Pitch gluehot-melt glue for hafting | year 1 |
| 02.06 | Sinew thread and rawhide lashingshrinks tight as it dries | year 1 |
| 02.07 | Ground stone axe headtough polished edge that does not shatter | year 1 |
| 02.08 | Hafted stone axe ⚠fells trees and cuts poles | year 1 |
| 02.09 | Stone adzehollows and flattens wood | year 1 |
| 02.10 | Wooden wedges and maulsplit logs into rough planks | year 1 |
| 02.11 | Three-strand ropefor hauling and lifting | year 1 |
| 02.12 | Lever, log rollers and sledgethe first machines for moving heavy loads | year 1 |
| 02.17 | Basketscoiled and woven, for carrying and storing | year 1 |
| 02.18 | Wattle hurdles and woven matswalls, fences, drying trays | year 1 |
| 02.22 | Pump drill with stone bitdrills wood, bone, shell and soft stone | year 1 |
| 02.24 | Carved wooden bowls and troughsburned and scraped hollow | year 1 |
| 02.25 | Antler pick, bone shovel and stone hoedigging tools | year 1 |
| 02.26 | Dugout canoe and paddles ⚠explores the 100-mile coast | year 1 |
| 02.27 | Bitumen from the oil seepwaterproofs baskets and seams; first use of petroleum | year 1 |
| 02.29 | Carrying gearpack frame, carrying pole and head strap | year 1 |
Phase 03 — Food security and the first camp Year 1
| 03.04 | Outrigger and hide sail for the dugout ⚠steady under sail; the far end of the island in days, not weeks | year 1 |
| 03.10 | Rendered tallow and lardfuel, grease, waterproofing, later soap | year 1 |
| 03.11 | Tallow lampsteady light indoors | year 1 |
| 03.20 | Tamed riding and pack horsesrope halter, hide pad and pack baskets; a rider carries news across the island in days | year 1 |
| 03.25 | Managed coppice wood lotpoles and fuel that regrow every few years | year 1 |
Phase 04 — Clay, kilns, charcoal and lime Years 1–2
| 04.02 | Clay pit and prepared claydug, soaked, cleaned, tempered and kneaded | year 1 |
| 04.03 | Hand-built potspinched and coiled | year 1 |
| 04.04 | Pit-fired potteryfirst cooking pots and water jars; boiling becomes easy | year 1 |
| 04.07 | Charcoal clampwood baked under earth into clean, hot-burning fuel | year 1 |
| 04.08 | Sun-dried mud bricksmade in a wooden mould | year 1 |
| 04.09 | Updraft kilnfirebox below, pierced floor, domed chamber | year 1 |
| 04.10 | Kiln-fired potterystrong jars, lidded pots, bowls, lamps | year 1 |
| 04.11 | Fired bricks and roof tiles | year 1 |
| 04.12 | Potter's turntablefaster, rounder, thinner pots | year 1 |
| 04.14 | Lime kiln and quicklime ⚠burns limestone or shells | year 1 |
| 04.15 | Slaked lime, mortar, plaster and whitewash ⚠ | year 1 |
| 04.17 | Wood-ash lye ⚠the first chemical; water run through hardwood ash | year 2 |
| 04.18 | Potashlye boiled dry; needed for soap, glass and saltpetre | year 2 |
| 04.20 | Wood tar and pitchbaked out of pine in a sealed pot | year 2 |
| 04.22 | Refractory clay mixclay that survives white heat | year 2 |
| 04.23 | Heat cones and the colour of heatsmall clay cones that slump at known heats, and a chart of fire colours | year 2 |
| 04.24 | Cruciblessmall cups to melt metal in | year 2 |
| 04.25 | Clay air nozzles (tuyeres)carry the air blast into a fire | year 2 |
| 04.26 | Bag bellowsa pair of hide bags pumped by hand or foot | year 2 |
| 04.27 | Forced-air charcoal furnacereaches 1100–1200 °C, hot enough to smelt copper | year 2 |
Phase 05 — Copper and bronze Years 2–3
| 05.01 | Ore sample collection and simple testscolour, weight, streak, what a hot fire does | year 2 |
| 05.02 | Cold-hammered native copperbeads, awls, small blades; softened again by heating | year 2 |
| 05.03 | Fire-set open-cut mine ⚠rock heated by fire, cracked with water, prised out | year 2 |
| 05.04 | Ore dressing floorcrush, hand-sort and wash the ore | year 2 |
| 05.05 | Smelted copperthe first metal won from rock | year 2 |
| 05.06 | Open moulds and cast copper ingots | year 2 |
| 05.07 | Beam balance and weightsrecipes need measured parts | year 2 |
| 05.08 | Smelted tin | year 2 |
| 05.09 | Bronzenine parts copper, one part tin; harder and easier to cast | year 2 |
| 05.10 | Two-piece moulds with clay corescast hollow sockets | year 2 |
| 05.11 | Bronze axe and adze | year 2 |
| 05.12 | Bronze hammers and anvil block | year 2 |
| 05.13 | Bronze tongs and crucible lifters | year 2 |
| 05.14 | Bronze chisels, gouges, punches and drill bits | year 2 |
| 05.15 | Bronze sawfirst true saw, teeth cut with a chisel | year 3 |
| 05.16 | Bronze knives, sickles and razors | year 3 |
| 05.17 | Bronze spear and arrow heads | year 3 |
| 05.18 | Bronze pick, wedges and crowbarmining and quarrying | year 3 |
| 05.19 | Lost-wax castingany shape, fine detail | year 3 |
| 05.21 | Bronze needles, pins, hooks, nails and rivets | year 3 |
| 05.22 | Hammered copper sheet and riveted cauldronlarge metal vessels | year 3 |
| 05.23 | Hammered copper rod and thick wire | year 3 |
| 05.25 | Smelted lead ⚠soft, heavy, resists acid; vital later for chemistry and batteries | year 3 |
| 05.26 | Silver ⚠parted from lead by burning the lead away on a bed of bone ash | year 3 |
| 05.27 | Lead sheet, weights and pipe ⚠ | year 3 |
| 05.28 | Soft solder and solderingjoins metal without melting it | year 3 |
Phase 06 — Iron and steel Years 3–5
| 06.01 | Double board bellows with flap valvesa steady, strong air blast | year 3 |
| 06.02 | Mined and roasted iron oreroasting drives off water and makes it porous | year 3 |
| 06.03 | Bloomery furnacea clay shaft about chest high | year 3 |
| 06.04 | Iron blooma spongy lump of iron and slag, never fully melted | year 3 |
| 06.05 | Wrought iron barthe bloom hammered hot until the slag is squeezed out | year 3 |
| 06.06 | Smith's forgeraised hearth, side blast, quenching trough | year 3 |
| 06.07 | Iron hammers, tongs and anvil | year 3 |
| 06.08 | Forge weldingiron joined to iron at white heat | year 3 |
| 06.09 | Smith's tool sethot chisels, punches, drifts, fullers and swages | year 4 |
| 06.10 | Blister steeliron bars baked for days packed in charcoal | year 4 |
| 06.11 | Shear steelblister steel folded and welded until even | year 4 |
| 06.12 | Hardening and temperingquench hard, then reheat to the right colour | year 4 |
| 06.13 | Steel-edged axes, adzes and chisels | year 4 |
| 06.14 | Files and raspsthe tool that shapes all other metal tools | year 4 |
| 06.15 | Sawshand saw, frame saw and two-man pit saw | year 4 |
| 06.16 | Augers, drill bits and brace | year 4 |
| 06.17 | Crank grindstonea turning sandstone wheel in a water trough | year 4 |
| 06.18 | Nails, spikes and rivets | year 4 |
| 06.19 | Chain and hooks | year 4 |
| 06.20 | Draw plate and drawn wireiron and copper wire of even thickness | year 4 |
| 06.21 | Knives, shears, sickles and scythes | year 4 |
| 06.22 | Picks, shovels, hoes, crowbars and sledgehammers | year 4 |
| 06.23 | Iron hardwarehinges, latches, bands and hoops | year 4 |
| 06.24 | Lock and keya warded iron lock for the store, the powder and the medicines | year 5 |
| 06.25 | Hammered iron sheet, pans and griddles | year 5 |
| 06.26 | Steel needles, awls and fish hooks | year 5 |
| 06.27 | Flint and steel strikerfire in seconds | year 5 |
| 06.28 | Wedge-clamp bench viseholds work for filing | year 5 |
| 06.29 | Brazingstrong joints made with melted copper | year 5 |
| 06.30 | Timbered underground mine ⚠follows ore and coal into the hill | year 5 |
Phase 07 — Carpentry, the village, measures and writing Years 4–9
| 07.13 | Saw pit and sawn plankssquare timber in quantity | year 5 |
| 07.14 | Timber seasoning stackswood dried so it does not warp | year 5 |
| 07.15 | Carpenter's bench, planes, drawknife, spokeshave and mallets | year 5 |
| 07.16 | Hide glue | year 5 |
| 07.17 | Framed joinerymortise and tenon, dovetail, pegged joints | year 6 |
| 07.18 | Pole latheturns round parts: handles, spindles, pulleys, bowls | year 6 |
| 07.19 | Wooden screw and nutthe first screw thread, cut by hand | year 6 |
| 07.20 | Screw press and screw clamps | year 6 |
| 07.21 | Barrels, buckets and tubswatertight wooden vessels | year 6 |
| 07.25 | Spoked wheel with iron tyre | year 6 |
| 07.26 | Wheelbarrow and hand cart | year 6 |
| 07.27 | Two-wheel cart and four-wheel wagondrawn by oxen and horses | year 7 |
| 07.28 | Pulley blocks, windlass and capstana few people lift tons | year 7 |
| 07.29 | Lifting crane | year 7 |
| 07.30 | Rope walklong heavy ropes and cables | year 7 |
| 07.31 | Stone quarry and dressed blocks | year 7 |
| 07.32 | Refined sulphur ⚠melted clean and cast in sticks | year 7 |
| 07.33 | Saltpetrepurified by dissolving and crystallising | year 7 |
| 07.34 | Black powder ⚠ground wet by hand at first, later in the stamp mill; kept under lock, and used only for blasting | year 7 |
| 07.35 | Rock blasting ⚠drilled holes, powder and slow match; opens every mine, quarry and cutting from here on | year 7 |
| 07.36 | Graded roadvillage to mines, quarry and shore | year 7 |
| 07.39 | Workshop rowsmithy, wood shop, pottery, stores | year 8 |
| 07.44 | Timber bridge over the river | year 8 |
| 07.45 | Wooden wagonwayhorse-drawn carts on wooden rails from mine to works; the seed of the railway | year 8 |
| 07.46 | Plank-built boat with oars ⚠sealed with tar and fibre | year 8 |
| 07.47 | Timber jetty | year 8 |
Phase 08 — Farming, cloth, leather and household industry Years 6–18
| 08.04 | Saddle, bridle and stirrupsa rider crosses the island in two or three days | year 7 |
| 08.31 | Sailcloth and rigged sailing boat ⚠the whole coast within reach | year 14 |
| 08.37 | Linseed oil paint and varnishprotects wood and iron from weather | year 15 |
| 08.38 | Raw rubber sheettapped, set and smoked | year 15 |
Phase 09 — Water, wind and mechanical power Years 14–22
| 09.01 | Weir, mill pond and millrace with sluice gatestored, controlled water | year 14 |
| 09.02 | Greased plain bearingsan iron shaft turning in a bronze or hardwood block | year 14 |
| 09.03 | Undershot water wheelpaddles pushed by the stream | year 15 |
| 09.04 | Wooden gearstoothed wheel and cage pinion; turn power through a corner and change speed | year 15 |
| 09.06 | Overshot water wheelwater falls into buckets; far more power from the same stream | year 15 |
| 09.07 | Cam shaft and trip hammer ⚠a heavy hammer lifted and dropped by the wheel | year 16 |
| 09.08 | Water-blown bellowsan endless strong blast for furnaces | year 16 |
| 09.09 | Crank and connecting rodturns round-and-round into back-and-forth | year 16 |
| 09.10 | Water-powered sawmill ⚠ | year 17 |
| 09.11 | Flywheela heavy wheel that keeps a machine turning evenly | year 17 |
| 09.12 | Leather belt drive and line shaftone wheel drives many machines | year 17 |
| 09.13 | Machine guards and work protectionfenced gears and belts, a stop cord, leather aprons | year 17 |
| 09.14 | Stamp millcrushes ore with falling iron-shod posts | year 18 |
| 09.15 | Powered grinding and polishing wheels | year 18 |
| 09.16 | Powered lathesteady rotation for wood and soft metal | year 18 |
| 09.17 | Powered wire-drawing benchlong lengths of even wire | year 19 |
| 09.18 | Suction pump and bored-log pipes | year 19 |
| 09.19 | Bronze force pumppushes water uphill and under pressure | year 19 |
| 09.20 | Bucket-chain water liftdrains pits and waters fields | year 19 |
| 09.21 | Horse whimhorses turn a drum to hoist ore and water from the mine | year 20 |
| 09.22 | Horse milla horse walking in a circle drives a machine where there is no stream | year 20 |
| 09.23 | Windmillpower away from the river | year 20 |
Phase 10 — Blast furnace, coal, cast iron and rolling Years 20–26
| 10.01 | Coal mine ⚠fuel that does not depend on the forest | year 20 |
| 10.02 | Firebrickbricks that stand furnace heat for months | year 20 |
| 10.03 | Coke ⚠coal baked free of smoke and sulphur; strong enough to carry a tall furnace charge | year 20 |
| 10.04 | Mine safety lampa flame behind fine wire gauze that cannot fire mine gas | year 21 |
| 10.05 | Mine ventilationa second shaft and air doors draw fresh air through the workings | year 21 |
| 10.06 | Pit poniessmall horses haul the tubs underground and along the wagonway | year 21 |
| 10.07 | Water-powered piston blowerfar more air than any bellows | year 21 |
| 10.08 | Blast furnace ⚠a tall stone stack lined with firebrick, run for months without stopping | year 21 |
| 10.09 | Pig iron ⚠iron tapped as a liquid and run into sand channels | year 22 |
| 10.10 | Sand moulding with wooden patternsthe foundry method | year 22 |
| 10.11 | Cupola remelting furnace | year 22 |
| 10.12 | Iron castingspots, stoves, pipes, anvils, weights | year 22 |
| 10.13 | Cast iron gears, shafts and machine framesmills rebuilt in iron | year 22 |
| 10.14 | Hot blast stoveheats the furnace air and saves a third of the fuel | year 23 |
| 10.15 | Puddling furnace ⚠turns brittle pig iron into tough wrought iron in bulk | year 23 |
| 10.16 | Water-driven shingling hammersqueezes the slag from puddled iron | year 23 |
| 10.17 | Rolling mill ⚠iron squeezed between turning rolls | year 23 |
| 10.18 | Rolled bar, rod and rail | year 24 |
| 10.19 | Iron plate and sheetthe material of boilers | year 24 |
| 10.20 | Iron railway track and flanged wheelshorse-drawn at first | year 24 |
| 10.21 | Tinplaterust-proof sheet for cans, lamps and vessels | year 24 |
| 10.22 | Welded iron pipe | year 24 |
| 10.23 | Wire ropefor mine hoists and cranes | year 25 |
| 10.24 | Rolled copper sheet, rod and long drawn wire | year 25 |
| 10.25 | Brasscopper melted with zinc ore | year 25 |
| 10.26 | Crucible cast steelsteel fully melted, so it is the same all the way through | year 25 |
| 10.27 | Cast-steel cutting tools and springs | year 25 |
| 10.28 | Tungsten tool steelcutting tools that keep their edge when they run hot | year 26 |
Phase 11 — Glass, chemistry, petroleum, rubber and cement Years 24–32
| 11.01 | Glass furnace and melted glass | year 24 |
| 11.02 | Blown glassbottles, jars and flasks | year 24 |
| 11.04 | Laboratory glasswareretorts, tubes, funnels, condensers | year 24 |
| 11.05 | Ground lensesmagnifier, spectacles, telescope for surveying | year 24 |
| 11.06 | Goggles and dust maskseyes and lungs protected at the grinder, the furnace and the acid bench | year 25 |
| 11.07 | Salt-glazed stonewareacid-proof jars and pipes | year 25 |
| 11.08 | Porcelainwhite clay fired very hot; the best insulator and the best laboratory ware | year 25 |
| 11.09 | Copper still with coiled condenser | year 25 |
| 11.10 | Distilled alcohol ⚠solvent, antiseptic, clean-burning fuel | year 25 |
| 11.11 | Turpentine and rosinthinner, solvent and soldering flux | year 25 |
| 11.12 | Wood-distilling retort ⚠wood heated in a closed iron vessel gives wood spirit, strong vinegar acid, acetone and better charcoal | year 25 |
| 11.13 | Shellac varnishthe first good electrical insulation | year 25 |
| 11.14 | Mercury ⚠roasted from red cinnabar and condensed | year 25 |
| 11.15 | Thermometer, barometer and hydrometerheat, pressure and strength of liquids become numbers | year 26 |
| 11.16 | Still house and laboratorybenches, water, a hood that draws fumes away, and safe stores | year 26 |
| 11.18 | Sulphuric acid ⚠made in lead-lined chambers; the most important chemical of all | year 26 |
| 11.19 | Nitric acid ⚠ | year 26 |
| 11.20 | Hydrochloric acid ⚠ | year 26 |
| 11.21 | Soda ashbetter glass and soap | year 26 |
| 11.22 | Caustic soda ⚠ | year 26 |
| 11.23 | Wood pulpwood cooked in caustic soda into clean fibre; cheap paper | year 26 |
| 11.24 | Carbon disulphide ⚠sulphur vapour passed over red-hot charcoal; a poisonous liquid that catches fire very easily | year 27 |
| 11.25 | Blue and green vitriolcopper and iron sulphate, for batteries, plating and ink | year 27 |
| 11.26 | Zinc metal ⚠distilled from its ore as a vapour and condensed | year 27 |
| 11.27 | Lead oxides ⚠litharge and red lead, for paint, pipe joints and battery plates | year 27 |
| 11.28 | Coal gas works and gas light ⚠ | year 27 |
| 11.29 | Coal tar, pitch and creosotepreserves railway sleepers and timber | year 27 |
| 11.30 | Ammonia and sal ammoniacbattery salt and soldering flux | year 27 |
| 11.31 | Mirrorspolished white bronze first, silvered glass later | year 27 |
| 11.34 | Drilled oil well ⚠a steel bit dropped on a rope from a spring pole | year 28 |
| 11.35 | Oil still ⚠splits crude oil into gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, wax and tar | year 28 |
| 11.36 | Gasoline store ⚠the lightest cut of the oil kept cool in sealed iron drums, away from every flame; solvent and blowlamp fuel now, engine fuel later | year 28 |
| 11.38 | Mineral lubricating oil and greaselets machines run fast and hot | year 28 |
| 11.39 | Vulcanised rubber ⚠rubber kneaded with sulphur and cured by heat; stays springy hot or cold | year 28 |
| 11.40 | Rubber goodshoses, gaskets, belts, seals, waterproof cloth, boots | year 28 |
| 11.41 | Hard rubbera tough insulator for battery cases and electrical parts | year 28 |
| 11.42 | Graded abrasive powderssorted by settling in water | year 29 |
| 11.43 | Asbestos and mica insulation ⚠heat-proof packing and sheet | year 29 |
| 11.44 | Portland cement | year 29 |
| 11.45 | Concrete and iron-reinforced concreteengine beds, dams, harbour walls | year 29 |
| 11.47 | Antimony ⚠smelted from its grey ore; hardens lead and tin for bearings and printing type | year 29 |
| 11.48 | Nickel and resistance alloynickel smelted from its ore; an alloy with copper for resistance wire and hard-wearing plating | year 29 |
| 11.49 | Zinc-coated iron wire and sheetiron dipped in molten zinc so it cannot rust | year 29 |
| 11.57 | Litmus papershows at once whether a liquid is acid or alkali | year 30 |
| 11.71 | Benzene and aniline from coal tar ⚠the start of dyes, stains and made medicines | year 32 |
Phase 12 — Precision and machine tools Years 30–36
| 12.01 | Flat surface platesthree iron plates scraped against each other until all are truly flat | year 30 |
| 12.02 | Straightedges and squarestrue references taken from the plates | year 30 |
| 12.03 | Iron-bed lathe with slide restthe tool is held by the machine, not the hand | year 30 |
| 12.04 | Master lead screwone accurate screw, made slowly and corrected, from which all others are copied | year 30 |
| 12.05 | Screw-cutting lathe with change gearscuts any thread | year 31 |
| 12.06 | Taps, dies and standard threads | year 31 |
| 12.07 | Bolts, nuts and machine screwsthings can be taken apart and put back | year 31 |
| 12.08 | Iron screw vise and clamps | year 31 |
| 12.09 | Measuring toolscalipers, screw micrometer, sliding gauge, plug and ring gauges | year 31 |
| 12.10 | Drill press and twist drills | year 31 |
| 12.11 | Cylinder boring milla rigid bar bores a true round cylinder; the key to steam | year 31 |
| 12.12 | Planing machinetrue flat surfaces on iron | year 32 |
| 12.13 | Shapersmall flats, slots and keyways | year 32 |
| 12.14 | Milling machineturning cutters shape metal | year 32 |
| 12.15 | Dividing head and cut gearsaccurate, quiet gear teeth | year 32 |
| 12.17 | Bonded grinding wheels and tool grinder | year 32 |
| 12.18 | Precision grinding machinefinishes hardened steel to exact size | year 32 |
| 12.19 | White-metal bearings with oil cupssoft lining that runs cool at speed | year 32 |
| 12.20 | The machine shoplathes, drills and planers driven from one line shaft | year 33 |
| 12.24 | Plate punch, shears and hot riveting | year 33 |
| 12.25 | Plate-bending rollscurve flat plate into boiler shells | year 33 |
| 12.26 | Valves, cocks and threaded pipe fittings | year 33 |
| 12.27 | Hydraulic presshuge force from a small pump | year 34 |
| 12.28 | Pressure gaugea curved brass tube that straightens under pressure and moves a pointer | year 34 |
| 12.30 | Circular saw and wood-planing machine ⚠ | year 34 |
| 12.33 | Fine balanceweighs a single grain; doses and chemical tests become exact | year 34 |
| 12.34 | Colour-corrected lensestwo kinds of glass cemented together give a sharp image with no coloured fringes | year 35 |
| 12.43 | Hand-cranked centrifugespins a liquid so that its parts separate | year 36 |
Phase 13 — Steam power Years 34–40
| 13.01 | Test boiler with weighted safety valve ⚠learning what steam pressure and vacuum can do | year 34 |
| 13.02 | Riveted iron boiler ⚠ | year 34 |
| 13.03 | Boiler fittingssafety valve, water-level glass, pressure gauge, lead fusible plug | year 34 |
| 13.04 | Water pressure test of every boiler ⚠pumped full of cold water to well above working pressure | year 35 |
| 13.05 | Boiler house and brick chimneytall stack pulls air through the fire | year 35 |
| 13.06 | Atmospheric beam engine ⚠steam condensed under a piston; pumps the mine dry | year 35 |
| 13.07 | Steam-tight piston, rings and stuffing box | year 35 |
| 13.08 | Separate condenser and air pumpthe cylinder stays hot; fuel use falls by two thirds | year 35 |
| 13.09 | Double-acting cylinder with slide valve and eccentricsteam pushes both ways | year 36 |
| 13.10 | Rotative beam engine ⚠crank and flywheel turn a shaft | year 36 |
| 13.11 | Flyball governor and throttle valvethe engine holds its own speed | year 36 |
| 13.12 | Boiler feed pump and steam injector | year 36 |
| 13.13 | Steam-driven workshopsforge, mill and machine shop free of the river | year 36 |
| 13.14 | High-pressure boiler with internal flue ⚠ | year 37 |
| 13.15 | Pipe and boiler laggingkeeps the heat in | year 37 |
| 13.16 | High-pressure horizontal engine ⚠small, strong, no condenser needed | year 37 |
| 13.17 | Fire-tube boiler ⚠many small tubes; raises steam fast | year 37 |
| 13.18 | Steam hammer ⚠forges large shafts and axles | year 37 |
| 13.19 | Steam blowing engine for the blast furnace ⚠ | year 37 |
| 13.20 | Direct-acting steam pump ⚠water supply, mine drainage, fire fighting | year 38 |
| 13.21 | Steam winding engine at the mine ⚠ | year 38 |
| 13.22 | Steam crane ⚠lifts tons at the works, the harbour and the railway cuttings | year 38 |
| 13.23 | Gas compressor ⚠air and other gases squeezed by a steam-driven piston: air brakes, a rock drill, ice-making | year 38 |
| 13.24 | Engine indicatordraws the pressure inside the cylinder on paper; measures power | year 38 |
| 13.25 | Compound engine ⚠steam used twice, in a small then a large cylinder | year 39 |
| 13.26 | High-speed enclosed engine ⚠steady enough to drive a generator directly | year 39 |
Phase 14 — Electricity, generators, motors and batteries Years 38–45
| 14.01 | Voltaic pilethe first steady electric current | year 38 |
| 14.02 | Daniell cella reliable battery for hours of work | year 38 |
| 14.03 | Insulated copper wirewrapped in cotton thread and varnished | year 38 |
| 14.04 | Electromagneta magnet that switches on and off | year 38 |
| 14.05 | Galvanometershows and measures current | year 39 |
| 14.06 | Permanent steel magnetshardened bars and horseshoes magnetised in a coil | year 39 |
| 14.07 | Circuit hardwareswitches, terminals and fuses | year 39 |
| 14.08 | Electroplatinga thin coat of copper, tin or zinc laid on by current | year 39 |
| 14.09 | Induction coil ⚠a few volts turned into a spark of many thousands | year 39 |
| 14.13 | Hand-cranked magnetoa magnet moving past a coil makes current | year 40 |
| 14.14 | Commutator and brushescollect current from a turning coil in one direction | year 40 |
| 14.15 | Laminated iron corethin varnished sheets stacked, so the core does not heat | year 40 |
| 14.16 | Self-exciting dynamo ⚠its own current feeds its field magnets; real power at last | year 40 |
| 14.17 | Steam-driven generating set ⚠the first power station | year 40 |
| 14.18 | Electrical measuring instrumentsvoltmeter, ammeter, standard resistance coils | year 41 |
| 14.19 | Switchboardknife switches, fuses and field regulator on a slate panel | year 41 |
| 14.20 | Rubber-insulated cable | year 41 |
| 14.21 | Carbon rodspressed and baked | year 41 |
| 14.22 | Arc lampa blinding light for yards and workshops | year 41 |
| 14.23 | Mercury vacuum pump ⚠falling mercury drags the air out of a bulb | year 41 |
| 14.24 | Incandescent lampa glowing carbon thread in an airless glass bulb | year 42 |
| 14.26 | Electric motora dynamo run backwards | year 42 |
| 14.27 | Motor starter and speed control | year 42 |
| 14.28 | Motor-driven machineseach lathe, pump, fan and hoist with its own motor | year 42 |
| 14.29 | Lead-acid cell ⚠two lead plates in acid; can be charged again and again | year 42 |
| 14.30 | Pasted-plate storage battery ⚠lead grids packed with lead oxide; many times the capacity | year 43 |
| 14.31 | Battery room and charging board ⚠stores the day's surplus and lights the night | year 43 |
| 14.32 | Dry cellsealed, portable battery for bells and telephones | year 43 |
| 14.34 | Electrically refined copperpurer copper carries more current | year 43 |
| 14.36 | Alternator ⚠current that reverses many times a second | year 43 |
| 14.37 | Transformer ⚠steps voltage up for long wires and down again for use | year 44 |
| 14.38 | Induction motorno brushes, almost nothing to wear out | year 44 |
| 14.42 | Baked-enamel winding wirecopper wire coated in oil varnish and baked hard; thinner than cotton covering, so more turns fit in a motor | year 44 |
| 14.43 | Varnished cloth and pressed mica sheetinsulation between layers that stands the heat inside a motor | year 45 |
| 14.44 | Hydrogen and oxygen from water by electric current ⚠gases for a very hot flame and for later chemistry | year 45 |
| 14.45 | Tungsten metal ⚠the ore roasted with soda, the oxide turned to metal powder in hydrogen, then pressed and sintered | year 45 |
| 14.46 | Tungsten-filament lampthree times the light of the carbon lamp for the same current, and far longer life | year 45 |
Phase 15 — Railways, steam and electric cars, the power grid Years 43–50
| 15.01 | Bulk steel converter ⚠air blown through liquid iron turns tons of it to steel in minutes | year 43 |
| 15.02 | Rolled steel rails, plate, axles and tyres | year 43 |
| 15.03 | Steam locomotive ⚠ | year 43 |
| 15.04 | Railway wagons, carriages and brakes | year 43 |
| 15.05 | Steam shovel ⚠digs the cuttings and banks of the railway; one machine does the work of fifty diggers | year 44 |
| 15.06 | The island railwaythe first thirty miles of a line that will one day run the length of the island, signalled by telegraph | year 44 |
| 15.07 | Steam traction enginehauls, ploughs and threshes | year 44 |
| 15.08 | Steamboat with screw propeller | year 44 |
| 15.09 | Drawn steel tubelight, strong frames and boiler coils | year 44 |
| 15.10 | Ball bearingshardened steel balls ground round | year 44 |
| 15.11 | Roller chain and sprockets | year 45 |
| 15.12 | Air-filled rubber tyre with valve | year 45 |
| 15.13 | Tar-bound road surfacecrushed stone bound with tar; a smooth, dustless road for wheels | year 45 |
| 15.14 | Bicyclethe test bed for every light vehicle part | year 45 |
| 15.15 | Road vehicle chassissteering, leaf springs, differential gear and brakes | year 45 |
| 15.16 | Kerosene-fired flash boiler ⚠steam in minutes from a coil of tube | year 45 |
| 15.17 | Steam car | year 46 |
| 15.18 | Light traction battery ⚠ | year 46 |
| 15.19 | Electric carmotor, controller and battery; silent, clean, charged overnight | year 46 |
| 15.20 | Charging station | year 46 |
| 15.22 | Water turbinean enclosed wheel driven by water under pressure | year 46 |
| 15.23 | Hydro-electric station at the falls | year 47 |
| 15.24 | High-voltage power line ⚠current sent from the falls to the settlements, the mine and the works | year 47 |
| 15.25 | Island power gridsteam and water stations working together, batteries holding the surplus | year 47 |
| 15.26 | Electric mine and works tramway | year 47 |
| 15.27 | Steam turbine generatorsteam spins a bladed wheel directly; far more power from the same coal | year 47 |
| 15.28 | Vacuum tubea hot filament, a grid and a plate in an airless glass bulb control a current; the bulb is emptied by a hand pump, then by the mercury pump | year 47 |
| 15.35 | Acetic anhydride ⚠the strong reagent that turns salicylic acid into aspirin | year 48 |
| 15.43 | Moulded phenol resin ⚠the first man-made plastic, pressed hot into hard insulating parts | year 50 |
| 15.44 | Casein plasticmilk curd hardened into buttons, combs and handles | year 50 |
| 15.46 | Aluminium by electric current ⚠the first ingot: the light metal that flight will need | year 50 |
Phase 16 — The builder's tools: spanners, pneumatic hammer and construction crane Years 51–58
| 16.01 | Rolled steel girders and anglesthe long beams and corner bars that every frame, crane and bridge is built from | year 51 |
| 16.02 | Spanners and wrenchesa forged steel key for every standard nut, and one that adjusts | year 51 |
| 16.03 | Pliers, screwdrivers and wire cuttersthe hand tools of the fitter and the electrician, with handles that do not carry current | year 51 |
| 16.04 | Screw jack and hydraulic jackone person lifts a wagon, a girder or the corner of a building | year 52 |
| 16.05 | Chain hoista geared chain block: one hand on the chain lifts a ton and holds it | year 52 |
| 16.06 | Scaffolding and ladderssafe footing up the side of anything being built | year 52 |
| 16.07 | Safety helmet and harnessa hard hat against what falls, a belt and line against falling | year 52 |
| 16.08 | Portable electric drilla motor held in the hand: the hole is drilled where the work stands | year 53 |
| 16.09 | Electric arc welding ⚠steel melted to steel in an electric arc; the weld begins to replace the rivet | year 53 |
| 16.10 | Calcium carbide and acetylene ⚠lime and coke melted together in an electric furnace; in water the grey lumps give off a gas that burns white-hot | year 54 |
| 16.11 | Gas welding and cutting torch ⚠acetylene burnt in pure oxygen: a flame that welds thin plate and cuts thick steel | year 55 |
| 16.12 | Pneumatic hammera piston driven by compressed air strikes thousands of blows a minute: rivets closed, castings chipped, concrete broken | year 55 |
| 16.13 | Pneumatic rock drill ⚠the air hammer turning a long steel bit: shot holes in rock in minutes, for mines, cuttings and tunnels | year 56 |
| 16.14 | Paint spray gunpaint blown on as a fine mist: a bridge painted in days | year 56 |
| 16.15 | Construction crane ⚠a tall steel tower with a long jib and electric winches: lifts girders to the top of a rising frame | year 58 |
Phase 17 — The gasoline engine and the forklift Years 51–64
| 17.01 | Spark pluga spark jumps a small gap inside the cylinder at the right instant | year 51 |
| 17.02 | Carburettormixes a fine spray of gasoline into the air the engine draws in | year 51 |
| 17.03 | Gasoline engine ⚠the fuel burns inside the cylinder itself: far more power for its weight than steam, and it starts in a moment | year 52 |
| 17.04 | Two-stroke enginea small light engine without valves that fires at every turn | year 53 |
| 17.05 | Gasoline motor car and lorry ⚠the engine on a road chassis, with clutch, gearbox and driven axle: people and goods anywhere a road goes | year 54 |
| 17.06 | Electric starter and vehicle lightsa battery turns the engine over and lights the road at night | year 55 |
| 17.07 | Fuel pump and filling stationgasoline kept underground and measured into each tank | year 55 |
| 17.08 | Motorcyclea small engine in a bicycle frame | year 55 |
| 17.09 | Motor busa long lorry chassis with seats: the first public transport by road | year 56 |
| 17.12 | Diesel engine ⚠air squeezed until it is hot enough to fire the fuel by itself: no spark, heavy oil, great pulling power | year 57 |
| 17.13 | Oil-hydraulic cylinder and pumpoil under pressure pushes a ram: the muscle of every later machine | year 57 |
| 17.15 | Tipper lorrythe load is tipped out by a hydraulic ram | year 58 |
| 17.16 | Palleta flat timber deck that lets a whole load be lifted at once | year 58 |
| 17.17 | Forklifta small truck with two steel forks on a mast: one driver stacks what twenty people carried | year 59 |
| 17.18 | Crawler tractor and bulldozer ⚠tracks in place of wheels and a steel blade in front: earth moved for roads, dams and airfields | year 60 |
| 17.19 | Portable air compressoran engine and a compressor on wheels: air tools at any building site | year 60 |
| 17.20 | Chain saw ⚠a toothed chain driven round a bar by a small engine: a tree felled in minutes | year 62 |
Phase 18 — High-voltage lines, transmission towers and the multimeter Years 52–64
| 18.01 | Standard resistors and capacitorsthe made parts every later circuit uses: known values, marked and matched | year 52 |
| 18.02 | Rectifierlets current pass one way only: alternating current charges batteries, and one meter reads both kinds | year 52 |
| 18.03 | Multimeterone instrument for volts, amperes and ohms, carried to the fault | year 53 |
| 18.04 | Suspension insulatora string of porcelain discs that holds a line at a far higher voltage | year 53 |
| 18.05 | Aluminium power cable with steel corea light, strong conductor for long spans | year 54 |
| 18.06 | Transmission towera lattice of steel angles that carries the lines high across country | year 55 |
| 18.07 | Lightning arresterleads a lightning stroke on the line safely to earth | year 55 |
| 18.08 | Substation with oil circuit breaker ⚠high voltage stepped down for a district, and a fault cut off in an instant under oil | year 56 |
| 18.09 | Lead-sheathed underground cablepower and telephone lines buried under the street | year 56 |
| 18.10 | Electric arc furnace ⚠scrap steel melted by an arc between great carbon rods: fine steels made to order | year 57 |
| 18.13 | Thermostata strip of two metals bends with heat and switches the current on and off | year 58 |
| 18.15 | Electric soldering irona small heated copper tip for joining wires | year 59 |
Phase 19 — Roads, bridges, flyovers and tall buildings Years 55–100
| 19.03 | Stone crusher and gravel plantrock broken and sorted by size for roads and concrete | year 56 |
| 19.04 | Rotary cement kilna long sloping tube that turns day and night: cement by the hundred tons | year 56 |
| 19.05 | Concrete mixera turning drum mixes every batch alike | year 56 |
| 19.06 | Road roller and graderthe road bed shaped and pressed hard before it is surfaced | year 57 |
| 19.07 | Piled foundations and pile driver ⚠long piles hammered down to firm ground, under a bridge pier or a tall building | year 57 |
| 19.08 | Cofferdam and caisson ⚠a dry place to work under water, for the piers of bridges and the walls of harbours | year 58 |
| 19.09 | Steel building framea skeleton of girders carries the floors, and the walls only keep the weather out | year 58 |
| 19.10 | Electric lift with safety brake ⚠a car hung on wire ropes in a shaft, with a catch that grips the rails if a rope breaks | year 59 |
| 19.14 | Roadsa net of many roads with junctions, wide and hard enough for lorries and buses | year 60 |
| 19.15 | Road signs, markings and traffic lightspainted lines, signs that need no words, and coloured lamps at the crossings | year 62 |
| 19.17 | Bridgesof steel and of concrete, across the river and the gulf | year 62 |
| 19.18 | Prestressed concretesteel wires pulled tight inside the concrete, so that a slender beam carries a great load | year 64 |
| 19.19 | Harbour with quay, breakwater and lighthouseships lie in still water beside a crane, and a light marks the entrance at night | year 66 |
| 19.20 | Dual carriagewaytwo separate roadways, one for each direction, for fast traffic between the settlements | year 68 |
| 19.21 | Tunnel ⚠a road or a railway driven through a hill | year 70 |
| 19.22 | Flyoversone road carried over another on concrete piers, so that neither stream of traffic stops | year 72 |
| 19.23 | Concrete dam and reservoir ⚠a valley closed by a wall of concrete: water for the towns and power for the grid | year 75 |
Phase 20 — Epoxy and the materials for tape and screen Years 56–90
| 20.01 | Chlorine and caustic soda by electric current ⚠salt water split by current into the two chemicals that most of the new materials start from | year 56 |
| 20.02 | Acetonethe clear solvent for lacquers, films and resins | year 56 |
| 20.03 | Cellulose lacquer and enamel painta hard, glossy coat that dries in minutes and can be sprayed | year 58 |
| 20.04 | Plastic filma thin, clear, strong ribbon: the base of photographic film and of magnetic tape | year 60 |
| 20.05 | Strong aluminium alloyaluminium with a little copper, hardened by heat and time: as strong as mild steel at a third of the weight | year 60 |
| 20.06 | Ammonia made from the air ⚠nitrogen and hydrogen joined under great pressure over hot iron: fertiliser and chemicals without limit | year 61 |
| 20.07 | Chromium and stainless steelsteel with chromium and nickel does not rust | year 62 |
| 20.08 | PVCvinyl plastic: a tough covering for cable, pipe and flooring that does not rot | year 63 |
| 20.09 | Magnet and core alloyssteels and nickel-irons made for magnetism alone: stronger magnets, cores that waste less | year 64 |
| 20.10 | Tungsten carbide tool tipsa cutting edge harder than any steel, pressed from powder | year 66 |
| 20.11 | Synthetic rubberrubber made in the works, so that tyres no longer wait on the trees | year 68 |
| 20.13 | Glass fibre and fibre-reinforced resinglass drawn into fine threads and set in resin: light panels and hulls as strong as metal | year 74 |
| 20.14 | Epoxytwo liquids that set, when mixed, into a glue and a casting resin stronger than any before | year 80 |
| 20.15 | Polarising filma plastic sheet that lets through only light that swings one way: half of what a liquid crystal screen needs | year 84 |
| 20.16 | Clear conducting coating on glassa film of tin oxide too thin to see, which carries current across a window | year 85 |
| 20.17 | Liquid crystal compounda liquid whose molecules line up in an electric field and turn the light: the heart of a flat screen | year 88 |
Phase 21 — Microphone, speaker, magnetic tape and the telephone exchange Years 58–85
| 21.01 | Relaya small current closes a switch for a larger one: one circuit commands another | year 58 |
| 21.03 | Multi-pair telephone cablehundreds of paper-wrapped pairs of wire in one lead sheath | year 59 |
| 21.04 | Valve amplifiera weak signal made strong without changing its shape | year 59 |
| 21.05 | Microphonesound turned into a true electric copy of itself | year 60 |
| 21.06 | Speakera paper cone driven by a coil in a magnet fills a room with sound | year 60 |
| 21.17 | Photo-electric celllight falling on a coated plate lets a current flow: a machine can see | year 66 |
| 21.19 | Magnetic tapea plastic ribbon coated with fine iron oxide holds sound as a pattern of magnetism | year 70 |
Phase 22 — The propeller airplane Years 62–80
| 22.01 | Plywoodthin sheets of wood glued with the grain crossed: light, strong, and it does not split | year 62 |
| 22.03 | Glider ⚠a wing that carries a person down a slope on moving air: steering is learned before any engine is trusted | year 63 |
| 22.04 | Doped fabric coveringcloth stretched over the frame and painted with a lacquer that shrinks it drum-tight and weatherproof | year 63 |
| 22.05 | Light aircraft enginea gasoline engine pared down until each horsepower weighs a kilogram or two | year 64 |
| 22.06 | Propeller airplane ⚠a wing, a tail, an engine and a propeller: people fly | year 65 |
| 22.07 | Airfielda long, level, drained strip with a windsock, sheds and fuel | year 65 |
| 22.08 | Flight instrumentsairspeed indicator, altimeter and gyroscope horizon: the pilot knows speed, height and which way is up inside a cloud | year 66 |
| 22.09 | Parachutea canopy of fine cloth lets a person fall safely from a failing aircraft | year 66 |
| 22.11 | Seaplane and flying boatan aircraft that takes off from the water of the gulf and comes down on it | year 67 |
| 22.12 | High-octane aviation fuelgasoline that can be squeezed harder without knocking: more power from the same engine | year 68 |
| 22.14 | Radial aero engine ⚠cylinders set like the spokes of a wheel round one crank and cooled by the air: great power for little weight | year 69 |
| 22.15 | Safety glass and clear acrylic sheeta windscreen that cracks without flying apart, and a clear plastic that can be moulded into a canopy | year 70 |
| 22.18 | All-metal aircraft with stressed skinthe aluminium skin itself carries the load: faster, stronger, and it does not rot | year 72 |
| 22.19 | Airliner for passengers, cargo and maila large closed aircraft on a timetable: the far end of the island in an hour | year 74 |
| 22.21 | Helicopter ⚠lifted by a turning wing, it rises straight up, hovers, and lands on a patch of ground | year 80 |
Phase 23 — Logic gates, ferrite core memory and the valve computer Years 72–100
| 23.07 | Crystal diodea tiny one-way gate for current: a metal point on a chip of crystal, with no filament to burn out | year 82 |
| 23.08 | Cathode-ray tube screena display before the flat screen: a beam of electrons writes figures and curves on glowing glass | year 83 |
| 23.09 | OR gateits output is on if either input is on | year 84 |
| 23.10 | AND gateits output is on only if both inputs are on | year 84 |
| 23.11 | NOT gateturns on into off and off into on | year 84 |
| 23.12 | NOR gateOR followed by NOT: from this one gate alone every circuit of logic can be built | year 85 |
| 23.13 | NAND gateAND followed by NOT: it too can build everything | year 85 |
| 23.14 | XOR gateon if the two inputs differ: the heart of the adder | year 85 |
| 23.15 | Flip-floptwo gates feeding each other hold one bit until they are told to change | year 86 |
| 23.16 | Clock pulse generatora steady train of pulses makes every part of the machine step together | year 86 |
| 23.17 | Adderadds two binary digits and a carry; a row of them adds whole numbers | year 87 |
| 23.18 | Register and countera row of flip-flops holds a number, and counts pulses | year 88 |
| 23.19 | Decoder and selector circuitspick one line out of many from a number: which store, which operation | year 88 |
| 23.20 | Printed circuit board and plug-in unitthe wiring etched in copper on a board, and each circuit a unit that can be pulled out and changed | year 88 |
| 23.21 | Stabilised power supply and cooling ⚠steady voltages for thousands of valves, and their heat carried away | year 88 |
| 23.22 | Ferritea magnetic ceramic that does not conduct: pressed from metal oxides and fired | year 88 |
| 23.23 | Magnetic drum storea spinning drum coated like tape holds thousands of numbers under rows of heads | year 89 |
| 23.24 | Arithmetic unitregisters and adders that add, subtract, shift and compare on command | year 89 |
| 23.25 | Ferrite core memorya tiny ring of ferrite on crossed wires holds one bit with no power: thousands woven into a mat make a fast store | year 90 |
| 23.26 | Keyboardthe typewriter's keys send coded signals straight into the machine | year 91 |
| 23.27 | Control unit and the stored programthe orders are kept in the same store as the numbers, and the machine fetches and obeys them one by one | year 92 |
| 23.30 | Display drive circuitswitches that put the right voltage on each dot of a screen, row by row | year 97 |
| 23.31 | LCD monitora flat screen of liquid crystal between two sheets of coated glass: the picture formed dot by dot, with almost no power | year 100 |